Icon:
Nameplate:
Tool Configuration:
{"tool":"checklist","version":2,"description":"<p>The Intervention Planner for Academics is a free online tool that lets educators put together customized academic intervention plans to address reading, writing, and math issues for struggling learners. Once you have created an academic intervention plan, you can download the plan in text or PDF format and even email it to others. And if you have a free Intervention Central account, you can also save academic intervention plans that you create online for later retrieval.</p>","directions":"<p>Click <a href=\"../../sites/default/files/pdfs/pdfs_tools/Wright_2012_Intervention_Planner_for_Academics_Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">HERE</a> to download the full Intervention Planner for Academics manual.</p>\n<ul>\n<li>To browse academic intervention ideas, select any of the categories from the 'Select Checklist' drop-down menu. Strategies for the selected category will then load into the 'Selected Checklist' box. Click on the arrow next to intervention ideas that you would like to add to your customized intervention plan and those ideas will load into the 'Your Checklist' box. Items in this box will go into your plan.</li>\n<li>You can add your own notes to any intervention idea in the 'Your Checklist' box by clicking the 'edit' button that appears next to it. A window will open and you will be able to type in your notes.</li>\n<li>When you are ready to download your customized intervention plan, you can do so by clicking on the tabs of the report choices below. You can download PDF or RTF (Microsoft-Word-ready) documents and can email these documents to others. You can also apply a unique name to any report by typing that name into the 'Report Title' box that appears near the bottom of the page under 'Printing Options'.</li>\n<li>If you have already created a free account on Intervention Central, you can save your intervention plan to that account. Just click the 'Save' button at the top of the page.</li>\n</ul>","abbreviation":true,"lists":[{"editable":false,"title":"Math: Instruction","description":"<p>Math: Instruction contains ideas to support math learners in core math instruction.</p>","items":[{"text":"MATH: INSTRUCTION: PEER-GUIDED PAUSE. During large-group math lectures, teachers can help students to retain more instructional content by incorporating brief Peer Guided Pause sessions into lectures: (1) Students are trained to work in pairs. At one or more appropriate review points in a lecture period, the instructor directs students to pair up to work together for 4 minutes. (2) During each Peer Guided Pause, students are given a worksheet that contains one or more correctly completed word or number problems illustrating the math concept(s) currently being reviewed in the lecture. The sheet also contains several additional, similar problems that pairs of students must work cooperatively to complete, along with an answer key. (3) Student pairs are reminded to (a) monitor their understanding of the lesson concepts; (b) review the correctly math model problem; (c) work cooperatively on the additional problems, and (d) check their answers. (4) The teacher can direct student pairs to write their names on the practice sheets and collect the work as a convenient way to monitor student participation and understanding.","notes":"Hawkins, J., & Brady, M. P. (1994). The effects of independent and peer guided practice during instructional pauses on the academic performance of students with mild handicaps. Education & Treatment of Children, 17 (1), 1-28."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Math: Shortcuts","description":"<p>Math Shortcuts are strategies that help students to more easily manage counting and basic math operations.</p>","items":[{"text":"MATH: SHORTCUTS: ADDITION. Teach the student these shortcuts to help with basic addition: (1) The order of the numbers in an addition problem does not affect the answer. (2) When zero is added to the original number, the answer is the original number. (3) When 1 is added to the original number, the answer is the next larger number.","notes":"Miller, S.P., Strawser, S., & Mercer, C.D. (1996). Promoting strategic math performance among students with learning disabilities. LD Forum, 21(2), 34-40."},{"text":"MATH: SHORTCUTS: SUBTRACTION. Teach the student these shortcuts to help with basic subtraction: (1) When zero is subtracted from the original number, the answer is the original number. (2) When 1 is subtracted from the original number, the answer is the next smaller number. (3) When the original number has the same number subtracted from it, the answer is zero.","notes":"4 Miller, S.P., Strawser, S., & Mercer, C.D. (1996). Promoting strategic math performance among students with learning disabilities. LD Forum, 21(2), 34-40."},{"text":"MATH: SHORTCUTS: MULTIPLICATION. Teach the student these shortcuts to help with basic multiplication: (1) When a number is multiplied by zero, the answer is zero. (2) When a number is multiplied by 1, the answer is the original number. (3) When a number is multiplied by 2, the answer is equal to the number being added to itself. (4) The order of the numbers in a multiplication problem does not affect the answer.","notes":"4 Miller, S.P., Strawser, S., & Mercer, C.D. (1996). Promoting strategic math performance among students with learning disabilities. LD Forum, 21(2), 34-40."},{"text":"MATH: SHORTCUTS: DIVISION. Teach the student these shortcuts to help with basic division: (1) When zero is divided by any number, the answer is zero. (2) When a number is divided by 1, the answer is the original number. (3) When a number is divided by itself, the answer is 1.","notes":"Miller, S.P., Strawser, S., & Mercer, C.D. (1996). Promoting strategic math performance among students with learning disabilities. LD Forum, 21(2), 34-40."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Math: Computation Strategies","description":"<p>Math Computation Strategies provide student strategies for completing problems involving math operations.</p>","items":[{"text":"MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: ADDITION: COUNT-UP. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic addition operations: (1) The student is given a copy of a number-line spanning 0-20. (2) When presented with a two-addend addition problem, the student is taught to start with the larger of the two addends and to 'count up' by the amount of the smaller addend to arrive at the answer to the addition problem.","notes":"Fuchs, L. S., Powell, S. R., Seethaler, P. M., Cirino, P. T., Fletcher, J. M., Fuchs, D., & Hamlett, C. L. (2009). The effects of strategic counting instruction, with and without deliberate practice, on number combination skill among students with mathematics difficulties. Learning and Individual Differences 20(2), 89-100."},{"text":"MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: SUBTRACTION: COUNT-UP. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic subtraction operations: (1) The student is given a copy of a number-line spanning 0-20. (2) The student is taught to refer to the first number appearing in the subtraction problem (the minuend) as 'the number you start with' and to refer to the number appearing after the minus (subtrahend) as 'the minus number'. (3) The student is directed to start at the minus number on the number-line and --from that start point--to count up to the starting number while keeping a running tally of numbers counted up on his or her fingers. (4) The final tally of digits separating the minus number and starting number is the answer to the subtraction problem.","notes":"Fuchs, L. S., Powell, S. R., Seethaler, P. M., Cirino, P. T., Fletcher, J. M., Fuchs, D., & Hamlett, C. L. (2009). The effects of strategic counting instruction, with and without deliberate practice, on number combination skill among students with mathematics difficulties. Learning and Individual Differences 20(2), 89-100."},{"text":"MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: MULTIPLICATION: COUNT-BY. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic multiplication operations: (1) The student looks at the two terms of the multiplication problem and chooses one of the terms as a number that he or she can count by (the 'count by' number). (2) The student takes the remaining term from the multiplication problem (the 'count times' number) and makes a corresponding number of tally marks to match it. (3) The student starts counting using the 'count by' number. While counting, the student touches each of the tally marks matching the 'count times' number. (4) The student stops counting when he or she has reached the final tally-mark. (5) The student writes down the last number said as the answer to the multiplication problem.","notes":"Cullinan, D., Lloyd, J., & Epstein, M.H. (1981). Strategy training: A structured approach to arithmetic instruction. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 2, 41-49."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Math: Arithmetic Facts","description":"<p>Math: Arithmetic Facts consist of ideas to help students to acquire and develop fluency with arithmetic facts ('math facts').</p>","items":[{"text":"MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: ACQUISITION: COVER-COPY-COMPARE. To memorize arithmetic facts, the student can be trained to independently use Cover-Copy-Compare: The student is given a worksheet with computation problems and answers appearing on the left side of the sheet, and the right side of the page left blank. The student is also given an index card. For each arithmetic-fact item, the student is directed (1) to study the correct arithmetic problem and answer on the left, (2) to cover the correct model with the index card, (3) from memory, to copy the arithmetic fact and answer onto the work space on the right side of the sheet, and (4) to compare the student version of the arithmetic fact and answer to the original model to ensure that it was copied correctly and completely.","notes":"Skinner, C. H., McLaughlin, T. F., & Logan, P. (1997). Cover, copy, and compare: A self-managed academic intervention effective across skills, students, and settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 295-306."},{"text":"MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: ACQUISITION: INCREMENTAL REHEARSAL. Incremental rehearsal is a useful strategy to help the student to acquire arithmetic facts. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. In preparation for this intervention, the teacher prepares a set of arithmetic-fact flashcards displaying equations but no answers. The teacher reviews all of the flashcards with the student. Flashcards that the student correctly answers within 2 seconds are sorted into a 'KNOWN' pile, while flashcards for which the student gives an incorrect answer or hesitates for longer than 2 seconds are sorted into the 'UNKNOWN' pile. During the intervention: (1) the teacher selects a card from the UNKNOWN pile (Card UK1), presents it to the student, reads off the arithmetic problem, and provides the answer (e.g., '4 x 8=32'). The student is then prompted to read the problem and give the correct answer (2) Next, the teacher selects a card from the KNOWN pile (Card K1) and adds it to the previously practiced card (UK1). In succession, the teacher shows the student the unknown (UK1) and the known (K1) card. The student has 2 seconds to provide an answer for each card. Whenever the student responds incorrectly or hesitates for longer than 2 seconds, the teacher corrects student responses as needed and has the student state the correct response. (3) The teacher then selects a second card from the KNOWN pile (card K2) and adds it to the student stack--reviewing cards UK1, K1, and K2. (4) This incremental review process repeats until the student's flashcard stack comprises 10 cards: 1 unknown and 9 known. (5) At this point, the original unknown card (UK1) is now considered to be a 'known' card and is retained in the student's review-card stack. To make room for it, the last known card (K9) is removed, leaving 9 known cards in that student's stack. (6) The teacher then draws a new card from the UNKNOWN pile (card UK2) and repeats the incremental review process described above, each time adding known cards from the 9-card student stack in incremental fashion.","notes":"Burns, M. K. (2005). Using incremental rehearsal to increase fluency of single-digit multiplication facts with children identified as learning disabled in mathematics computation. Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 237-249."},{"text":"MATH COMPUTATION STRATEGY: ACQUISITION: STUDENT HIGHLIGHTING. Students who are inattentive or impulsive can improve their accuracy and fluency on math computation problems through student-performed highlighting. The student is given highlighters of several colors and a math computation sheet. Before completing the worksheet, the student is directed to color-code the problems on the sheet in a manner of his or her choosing (e.g., by level of difficulty, by math operation). The student then completes the highlighted worksheet. ","notes":"Kercood, S., & Grskovic, J. A. (2009). The effects of highlighting on the math computation performance and off-task behavior of students with attention problems. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 231-241."},{"text":"MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK & GOAL-SETTING. The student gets regular feedback about computation fluency and sets performance goals. In preparation for this intervention, the teacher decides on a fixed time limit for worksheet drills (e.g., 5 or 10 minutes) --with an equivalent worksheet to be prepared for each session. In each session, before the student begins the worksheet, (1) the teacher provides the student with feedback about the number of correct problems and errors on the most recent previous worksheet, and (2) the teacher and student agree on an improvement-goal for the current worksheet (e.g., to increase the number of correct problems by at least 2 and to reduce the errors by at least 1). Student performance on worksheets is charted at each session.","notes":"Codding, R. S., Baglici, S., Gottesman, D., Johnson, M., Kert, A. S., & LeBeouf, P. (2009).Selecting intervention strategies: Using brief experimental analysis for mathematics problems. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25, 146-168."},{"text":"MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: PROVIDE INCENTIVES. A student may benefit from incentives to increase fluency with math facts. BRIEF ANALYSIS: The teacher first conducts a brief experimental analysis to determine whether incentives will increase a particular student's performance: (1) The student is given a worksheet with arithmetic facts and allotted two minutes to complete as many items as possible. The student receives a point for each correct digit written on the worksheet. (2) The teacher next prepares an equivalent worksheet with different problems--but composed of the same type and number of problems. (3) Before administering the second worksheet, the teacher presents the student with a 'prize bag' with tangible items (e.g., markers, small toys) and perhaps edible items (e.g., packaged raisins, crackers, etc.). The student is told that if he/she can increase performance on the second worksheet by at least 30%, the student will earn a prize. The student is asked to select a preferred prize from the prize bag. (4) The student is given the second worksheet and works on it for 2 minutes. Again, the worksheet is scored for correct digits. (5) If the student meets the fluency goal, he/she receives the selected prize. If the student fails to meet the goal, he/she is given a sticker as a consolation prize. USE OF INCENTIVES: The teacher uses incentives only if the preceding brief analysis indicates that incentives are an effective motivator. For this intervention, the teacher decides on a fixed time limit for worksheet drills (e.g., 5 or 10 minutes) --with an equivalent worksheet to be prepared for each session. In each session, before the student begins the worksheet, (1) the student is asked to select a potential prize from the prize bag, (2) the student reviews his/her most recent previous worksheet score, and (3) the student and teacher set an improvement goal for the current worksheet (e.g., to exceed the previous score by at least 2 correct digits). If the student meets the goal, he/she is given the prize; if the student falls short, the teacher provides verbal encouragement and perhaps a sticker as a consolation prize. Student performance on worksheets is charted at each session.","notes":"Codding, R. S., Baglici, S., Gottesman, D., Johnson, M., Kert, A. S., & LeBeouf, P. (2009).Selecting intervention strategies: Using brief experimental analysis for mathematics problems. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25, 146-168."},{"text":"MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: TIME DRILLS. Explicit time-drills are a method to boost students’ rate of responding on arithmetic-fact worksheets: (1) The teacher hands out the worksheet. Students are instructed that they will have 3 minutes to work on problems on the sheet. (2) The teacher starts the stop watch and tells the students to start work. (3) At the end of the first minute in the 3-minute span, the teacher ‘calls time’, stops the stopwatch, and tells the students to underline the last number written and to put their pencils in the air. Then students are told to resume work and the teacher restarts the stopwatch. (4) This process is repeated at the end of minutes 2 and 3. (5) At the conclusion of the 3 minutes, the teacher collects the student worksheets. ","notes":"Rhymer, K. N., Skinner, C. H., Jackson, S., McNeill, S., Smith, T., & Jackson, B. (2002). The 1-minute explicit timing intervention: The influence of mathematics problem difficulty. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 29(4), 305-311.\n\nSkinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.\n"}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Math: Word Problems","description":"<p>Math: Word Problems contains a range of strategies to solve word problems.</p>","items":[{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: ACQUISITION: USE WORKED EXAMPLES. Students acquiring math skills in the form of word-problems benefit from being given completed problems ('worked examples') to study. Teachers should observe these recommendations when formatting, teacher, and using worked examples as a student support: (1) FORMAT PROBLEM-SOLVING STEPS: the solution presented in the worked example should be broken down into discrete, labeled sub-steps/sub-goals corresponding to the appropriate process for solving the problem. (2) COMBINE TEXT AND GRAPHICS. If both text and visual elements appear in the worked example, they should be integrated into a single unitary display, if possible, rather than split into separate components--so as not to overwhelm the novice learner. (3) PAIR WORKED WITH UNWORKED EXAMPLES. Whenever the student is given a worked example to study, he or she should then immediately be presented with 1-2 similar examples to solve.","notes":"Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214."},{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: METACOGNITION: PAIRING WORKED EXAMPLES WITH SELF-EXPLANATION. Students who can coach themselves through math problem-solving steps ('self-explanation') demonstrate increased conceptual understanding of the task. The student should be explicitly coached to 'self-explain' each of the steps to be used in solving a particular type of problem--starting with completed problems ('worked examples') before advancing to unworked problems: (1) INTRODUCTION TO SELF-EXPLANATION. The teacher first explains the importance of self-explanation as a student math self-help skill. (2) TEACHER MODELING. Next, the teacher models self-explanation, applying the appropriate problem-solving steps to a worked example. (3) STUDENT MODELING WITH TEACHER FEEDBACK. The teacher then coaches the student's own self-explanation efforts, as the student moves through the steps of a second worked example. (4) INDEPENDENT STUDENT APPLICATION. When the student has successfully mastered the process, he or she is directed to use self-explanation during the problem-solving steps with any unworked problems.","notes":"Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214.\n\nTajika, H., Nakatsu, N., Nozaki, H., Neumann, E., & Maruno, S. (2007). Self-explanation for solving mathematical word problems: Effects of self-explanation as a metacognitive strategy for solving mathematical word problems. Japanese Psychological Research, 49(3), 222-233.\n"},{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: DRAW THE PROBLEM. The student can clarify understanding of a word problem by making a drawing of it before solving. To teach this strategy: (1) The teacher gives the student a worksheet containing at least six word problems. (2) The teacher explains to the student that making a picture of a word problem can make that problem clearer and easier to solve. (3) The teacher and student independently create drawings of each of the problems on the worksheet. (4) Next, the student shows his or her drawings for each problem while explaining each drawing and how it relates to the word problem. (5) The teacher also participates, explaining his or her drawings to the student. (6) The student is then directed to 'draw the problem' whenever solving challenging word problems.","notes":"Van Garderen, D. (2006). Spatial visualization, visual imagery, and mathematical problem solving of students with varying abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 496-506."},{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: 4-STEP PLANNING PROCESS. The student can consistently perform better on applied math problems when following this efficient 4-step plan: (1) UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM. To fully grasp the problem, the student may restate the problem in his or her own words, note key information, and identify missing information. (2) DEVISE A PLAN. In mapping out a strategy to solve the problem, the student may make a table, draw a diagram, or translate the verbal problem into an equation. (3) CARRY OUT THE PLAN. The student implements the steps in the plan, showing work and checking work for each step. (4) LOOK BACK. The student checks the results. If the answer is written as an equation, the student puts the results in words and checks whether the answer addresses the question posed in the original word problem.","notes":"Pólya, G. (1957). How to solve it (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press: Princeton, N.J.\n\nWilliams, K. M. (2003). Writing about the problem solving process to improve problem-solving performance. Mathematics Teacher, 96(3), 185-187.\n"},{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: SELF-CORRECTION CHECKLISTS. The student can improve accuracy on particular types of word and number problems by using an ‘individualized self-instruction checklist’ to direct attention to his or her unique error patterns: (1) To create such a checklist, the teacher meets with the student. Together they analyze common error patterns that the student tends to commit on a particular problem type (e.g., ‘On addition problems that require carrying, I don’t always remember to carry the number from the previously added column.’). For each type of error identified, the student and teacher together describe the appropriate step to take to prevent the error from occurring (e.g., ‘When adding each column, make sure to carry numbers when needed.’). (2) These self-check items are compiled into a single checklist. (3) The student is encouraged to use the individualized self-instruction checklist when working independently on number or word problems. TIP: As older students become proficient in creating and using these individualized error checklists, they can begin to analyze their own math errors and to make their checklists independently whenever they encounter new problem types.","notes":"Uberti, H. Z., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2004). Check it off: Individualizing a math algorithm for students with disabilities via self-monitoring checklists. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(5), 269-275."},{"text":"MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: 7-STEP PLANNING PROCESS. Students with a consistent strategy to take on math word problems work more efficiently and avoid needless errors. Presented here is an all-purpose 7-step cognitive strategy useful for solving any math word problem: This strategy should be formatted as a checklist for independent student use: (1) READ THE PROBLEM. The student reads the problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms). (2) PARAPHRASE THE PROBLEM. The student restates the problem in his or her own words. (3) DRAW THE PROBLEM. The student creates a drawing of the word problem, converting words to a visual representation of that problem. (4) CREATE A PLAN TO SOLVE. The student decides on the best way to solve the problem and develops a plan to do so. (5) PREDICT/ESTIMATE THE ANSWER. The student estimates or predicts what the answer to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer, using rounding or other shortcuts. (6) COMPUTE THE ANSWER. The student follows the plan developed previously to solve the problem and arrive at the correct answer. (7) CHECK THE ANSWER. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer calculated in a previous step to ensure that there is general agreement between the two values.","notes":"Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.\n\nMontague, M., & Dietz, S. (2009). Evaluating the evidence base for cognitive strategy instruction and mathematical problem solving. Exceptional Children, 75, 285-302.\n"},{"text":"MATH WORD PROBLEMS: HIGHLIGHT KEY TERMS. Students who have difficulties with inattention or impulsivity can increase rates of on-task behavior and accuracy on math word problems through highlighting of key terms. The teacher prepares the worksheet by using a colored highlighter to highlight a combination of 8-11 key words and numbers for each math word problem. The student then completes the highlighted worksheet.","notes":"Kercood, S., Zentall, S. S., Vinh, M., & Tom-Wright, K. (2012). Attentional cuing in math word problems for girls at-risk for ADHD and their peers in general education settings. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 106-112."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Reading: Fluency","description":"<p>Reading: Fluency strategies help students to read text with increased speed.</p>","items":[{"text":"READING FLUENCY: ASSISTED CLOZE. Fluency is the goal of this reading intervention. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects a passage at the student's instructional level. The teacher reads aloud from the passage while the student follows along silently and tracks the place in the text with a finger. Intermittently, the teacher pauses and the student is expected to read aloud the next word in passage. Then the teacher continues reading. The process continues until the entire passage has been read. Then the student is directed to read the text aloud while the teacher follows along silently. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer (whether during the assisted cloze or independent reading phase), the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the current reading activity. Optionally, the teacher may then have the student read the passage again (repeated reading) up to two more times as the teacher continues to silently monitor and correct any errors or hesitations.","notes":"Ellis, W. A. (2009). The impact of C-PEP (choral reading, partner reading, echo reading, and performance of text) on third grade fluency and comprehension development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis.\n\nHoman, S. P., Klesius, J. P, & Hite, C. (1993). Effects of repeated readings and nonrepetive strategies on students' fluency and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 94-99."},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: CHORAL READING. This simple strategy to build reading fluency can be used with individuals and groups of students. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging text at students' instructional or independent level. During choral reading sessions, the teacher or other fluent reader takes the role of 'lead reader', reading the passage aloud, while students also read aloud. Students are encouraged to read with expression.","notes":"Moskal, M. K., & Blachowicz, C. (2006). Partnering for fluency. New York: Guilford Press."},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: DUET READING. This strategy targets reading fluency. Sessions last for 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging text at the student's instructional or independent level. During duet reading, the teacher and student alternate reading aloud from the passage one word at a time, while the teacher tracks the place in the passage with an index finger. As the student grows more accomplished, the teacher can change the reading ratio to shift more responsibility to the student: for example, with the teacher reading one word aloud and then the student reading three words aloud in succession. As the student becomes more familiar with duet reading, the teacher can also direct the student to track the place in the text. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the reading activity.","notes":"Gallagher, T. M. (2008). The effects of a modified duet reading strategy on oral reading fluency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison."},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: ECHO READING. In this strategy to boost student reading fluency, the teacher selects a text at the student's instructional level. The teacher reads aloud a short section (e.g., one-two sentences at a time) while the student follows along silently. The student then reads the same short section aloud--and the read-aloud activity continues, alternating between teacher and student, until the passage has been completed. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the reading activity.","notes":"Ellis, W. A. (2009). The impact of C-PEP (choral reading, partner reading, echo reading, and performance of text) on third grade fluency and comprehension development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis.\n\nHoman, S. P., Klesius, J. P, & Hite, C. (1993). Effects of repeated readings and nonrepetive strategies on students' fluency and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 94-99.\n"},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: LISTENING PASSAGE PREVIEW. This intervention targets student reading fluency in sessions of 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects a passage at the student's instructional level. The student is directed to follow along silently and track the place in the text with a finger while the teacher reads the passage aloud. Then the student is prompted to read the passage aloud as the teacher follows along silently. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then directs the student to continue reading. Optionally, the teacher may then have the student read the passage again (repeated reading) up to two more times as the teacher continues to silently monitor and correct any errors or hesitations.","notes":"Guzel-Ozmen, R. (2011). Evaluating the effectiveness of combined reading interventions on improving oral reading fluency of students with reading disabilities. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 9(3), 1063-1086.\n\nHofstadter-Duke, K. L., & Daly, E. J. (2011). Improving oral reading fluency with a peer-mediated intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(3), 641-646.\n"},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: PAIRED READING. This reading fluency intervention prompts the student to read independently with prompt corrective feedback. Each session lasts 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging passage at the student's instructional level. The student is told that the teacher and student will begin the session reading aloud in unison. The student is also told that, whenever the student chooses, he/she can give a silent signal (e.g., lightly tapping the teacher's wrist); at this signal, the teacher will stop reading aloud and instead follow along silently while the student continues to read aloud. In addition, the student is told that, if he/she hesitates for 3 seconds or longer or misreads a word when reading aloud independently, the teacher will correct the student and then resume reading in unison. The session then begins with teacher and student reading aloud together. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer (during either unison or independent reading), the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and resumes reading in unison. The teacher also praises the student for using the silent signal to read aloud independently and occasionally praises other aspects of the student's reading performance or effort.","notes":"Fiala, C. L., & Sheridan, S. M. (2003). Parent involvement and reading: Using curriculum-based measurement to assess the effects of paired reading. Psychology in the Schools, 40(6), 613-626."},{"text":"READING FLUENCY: REPEATED READING. During 15-20 minute sessions, the student practices difficult words in isolation, reads the same passage several times to boost fluency, and tries to beat a previous fluency score. (1) PREPARATION: Before each session, the teacher selects a text within the student's instructional range long enough occupy the student for more than a minute of reading aloud and makes teacher and student copies. The teacher locates five challenge words in the passage to practice. (2) GOAL-SETTING: The teacher shows the student the performance graph with his/her most recent repeated-reading score and encourages the student to beat that score; (3) PREVIEW CHALLENGING WORDS: The teacher introduces each of the passage challenge words: \"This word is ___. What is this word?\"; (4) INITIAL READ: The student is directed to read the passage aloud, to do his/her best reading, to start at the beginning of the passage [which the teacher points out] and to read until told to stop. Also, the student is told that--if stuck on a word--the teacher will supply it. While the student reads aloud, the teacher marks reading errors. At the end of one minute, the teacher says \"Stop\", marks the student's end-point in the text with a bracket, totals the number of words correctly read, plots that score on the student graph, and labels that graph data-point \"1st reading\". (5) FEEDBACK AND ERROR CORRECTION: The teacher shows the student his/her graphed performance. The teacher then reviews student errors. Pointing to each error word, the teacher says, \"This word is ___. What is this word?\" and has the student repeat the correct word three times before moving to the next. (6) MODELING: The teacher directs the student to read aloud in unison with the teacher while using a finger to track the place in the text. The teacher takes the lead, reading the entire passage aloud at a pace slightly faster than that of the student. (6) REPEAT STUDENT READS. The teacher has the student repeat steps 4 and 5 twice more, until the student has read the passage independently at least 3 times. If the student's fluency score on the final read exceeds that of the previous session, the teacher provides praise and perhaps incentives (e.g., sticker, points toward rewards). ","notes":"Begeny, J C., Krouse, H. E., Ross, S. G., & Mitchell, R. C. (2009). Increasing elementary-aged students' reading fluency with small-group interventions: A comparison of repeated reading, listening passage preview, and listening only strategies. Journal of Behavioral Education, 18, 211-228.\n\nLo, Y., Cooke, N. L. & Starling, A. L. P. (2011). Using a repeated reading program to improve generalization of oral reading fluency. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(1), 115-140.\n"}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Reading: Comprehension","description":"<p>Reading: Comprehension includes various strategies to help the student to better self-monitor understanding and to retain key information from read passages.</p>","items":[{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: ACTIVATE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND DEVELOP QUESTIONS. In this two-part strategy, students first engage in an activity to activate their prior knowledge of a topic, then preview an informational passage on the same topic to generate questions. ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: The teacher prepares a short series (e.g., 3-5) of general questions or prompts about the topic to be covered in the informational passage assigned for the day's reading (e.g., \"Today we are going to read about animals that live in and around the seashore. Describe animals that live around a beach.\"). Students are given a brief period (10-20 minutes) to write answers to these general questions based on their prior knowledge of, and experience with, the topic. DEVELOPING QUESTIONS: Students are next given a short amount of time (e.g. 3-5 minutes) to preview the informational passage assigned for that day's reading and glance over titles, figures, pictures, graphs, and other text structures appearing in the selection. Students then put the text aside and are told to write questions about the topic that they hope to have answered when they read the text. The teacher can collect these prior activation/question generation sheets as evidence of student use of this strategy.","notes":"Taboada, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2006). Contributions of student questioning and prior knowledge to construction of knowledge from reading information text. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(1), 1-35."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: CLASSWIDE INSTRUCTION: DEVELOP A BANK OF MULTIPLE PASSAGES FOR CHALLENGING CONCEPTS. Having several passages of differing reading levels can be a useful way to help more students grasp challenging content. The teacher notes which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or other information will likely present the greatest challenge to students. For these ‘challenge’ topics, the teacher selects alternative readings that present the same general information and review the same key vocabulary as the course text but that are more accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with selections written at an easier reading level or that use graphics to visually illustrate concepts). These alternative selections are organized into a bank. Students are encouraged to engage in wide reading by choosing selections from the bank as a means to better understand difficult material. ","notes":"Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc"},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: CLASSWIDE INSTRUCTION: PROVIDE MAIN-IDEA PRACTICE THROUGH PARTNER RETELL. This brief paired activity can be during lectures to facilitate promote students' ability to summarize passage main ideas. Students are paired off in class and are assigned a short information passage, which either one student reads aloud to the other or is read silently by each student. Next, one student is assigned the role of ‘reteller’ and the other appointed as ‘listener’. During a 1-2 minute discussion period, the reteller recounts the main idea to the listener, who can comment or ask questions. The teacher then pulls the class together and, with student input, summarizes the passage main idea and writes it on the board.. Then the student pairs resume their work, with the reteller locating two key details from the reading that support the main idea and sharing these with the listener. At the end of the activity, the teacher does a spot check -- randomly calling on one or more students in the listener role and asking them to recap what information was shared by the reteller.","notes":"Carnine, L., & Carnine, D. (2004). The interaction of reading skills and science content knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20, 203-218."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: LINK PRONOUNS TO REFERENTS. The student reinforces understanding of abstract text by replacing pronouns with their referent nouns during independent reading. (1) PREPARING THE TEXT. On a photocopy of the text, the student circles each pronoun, identifies that pronoun’s referent (i.e., the noun that it refers to), and writes next to the pronoun the name of its referent. For example, the student may add the referent to a pronoun in this sentence from a biology text: “The Cambrian Period is the first geological age that has large numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with it. [Cambrian Period]\". (2) WHEN READING, SUBSTUTE REFERENTS FOR PRONOUNS. In each subsequent reading of the text, the student substitutes the referent for each pronoun.","notes":"Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: QUESTION GENERATION. This strategy incorporates paragraph main ideas and note-cards to promote retention of textual information: (1) LOCATE MAIN IDEAs. For each paragraph in an assigned reading, the student either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or (b) highlights key details and uses them to write a ‘gist’ sentence. (2) WRITE MAIN IDEAS ON NOTE-CARDS. The student then writes the main idea of that paragraph on an index card. Cards are sequentially numbered to correspond with paragraphs in the passage. (3) GENERATE REVIEW QUESTIONS. On the other side of the card, the student writes a question whose answer is that paragraph’s main idea sentence. This stack of ‘main idea’ cards becomes a useful tool to review assigned readings. ","notes":"Davey, B., & McBride, S. (1986). Effects of question-generation training on reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 256-262.\n\nRosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181-221.\n"},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: READING ACTIVELY THROUGH TEXT ANNOTATION. Students are likely to increase their retention of information when they interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the student is taught to engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of the text. The student may write annotations to record opinions about points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the reading, or unknown vocabulary words. The teacher can set specific student annotation goals (e.g., directing the student to complete and turn in a reading with a minimum of six annotations in the margins). ","notes":"Harris, J. (1990). Text annotation and underlining as metacognitive strategies to improve comprehension and retention of expository text. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference (Miami).\n\nSarkisian V., Toscano, M., Tomkins-Tinch, K., & Casey, K. (2003). Reading strategies and critical thinking. Retrieved from http://www.academic.marist.edu/alcuin/ssk/stratthink.html\n"},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: READING-REFLECTION PAUSES: This strategy is useful both for students who need to monitor their understanding as well as those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging in intensive reading as a means to build up endurance as attentive readers. The student decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four sentences; every 3 minutes; at the end of each paragraph). At the end of each interval, the student pauses briefly to recall the main points of the reading. If the student has questions or is uncertain about the content, the student rereads part or all of the section just read. ","notes":"Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: RECIPROCAL TEACHING. This cooperative-learning activity builds independent reading-comprehension skills while motivating students through regular (e.g., daily) peer interactions. Students meet in pairs, with reciprocal teaching sessions lasting 30-40 minutes. In advance of each session, students are given a challenging passage. Alternating roles at each session, one of the students assumes the 'teacher' role, taking the lead in guiding discussion through these six steps of the reciprocal tutoring model: The students (1) look over the passage and predict what it will cover; (2) discuss what they currently know ('prior knowledge') about the passage topic; (3) review the passage for words or phrases that are unclear and attempt to clarify their meaning; (4) review each paragraph in the passage and highlight its main idea; (5) review each paragraph again to summarize (either orally or in writing) its main idea and important details; and (6) develop questions about the passage and answer those questions from the text or their own knowledge and experience. Students practice these steps under teacher guidance until fluent. They also have the reciprocal teaching steps posted to refer to as needed.","notes":"Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275-293."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: RESTRUCTURING PARAGRAPHS TO PUT MAIN IDEA FIRST. This intervention draws attention to the main-idea sentence during independent reading. The student highlights or creates a main idea sentence for each paragraph in the assigned reading. When rereading each paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads the main idea sentence or student-generated ‘gist’ sentence first (irrespective of where that sentence actually falls in the paragraph); (2) reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) reflects on how the main idea relates to the paragraph content.","notes":"Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN STORY DETAILS WITH TEXT PREVIEWING. To help students to better comprehend and retain details from an assigned story, the teacher prepares a written text preview script to be shared with students before they read the story. The strategy can be used with an individual or group of students. SCRIPT: The script opens with several statements and questions chosen to interest students in a discussion about the story topic or theme (e.g., \"Today we are going to read about a boy who gets lost in the wilderness and must find his way home. Has anyone in this class ever been lost?\"). The preview next includes a plot-summary up to the story climax--but does not give away the ending. As part of the summary, the preview describes the setting of the narrative and introduces the main characters. The preview also selects three to four difficult words appearing in the story and defines them. PRESENTATION: The teacher uses the preview script as a framework for introducing the story. Optionally, students also receive a handout listing main characters and their descriptions and the difficult vocabulary terms and definitions.","notes":"Burns, M. K., Hodgson, J., Parker, D. C., & Fremont, K. (2011). Comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of text previewing and preteaching keywords as small-group reading comprehension strategies with middle-school students. Literacy Research and Instruction, 50, 241-252.\n\nGraves, M. F., Cooke, C. L., & Laberge, M. J. (1983). Effects of previewing difficult short stories on low ability junior high school students' comprehension, recall, and attitudes. Reading Research Quarterly,18(3), 262-276.\n"},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN TEXT INFORMATION WITH PARAPHRASING (RAP). Students who fail to retain important details from their reading can be taught a self-directed paraphrasing strategy. The student is trained to use a 3-step cognitive strategy when reading each paragraph of an information- text passage: (1) READ the paragraph; (2) ASK oneself what the main idea of the paragraph is and what two key details support that main idea; (3) PARAPHRASE the main idea and two supporting details into one's own words. This 3-step strategy is easily memorized using the acronym RAP (read-ask-paraphrase). OPTIONAL BUT RECOMMENDED: Create an organizer sheet with spaces for the student to record the main idea and supporting details of multiple paragraphs to be used with the RAP strategy. RAP organizer forms can provide structure to the student and yield work products that the teacher can collect to verify that the student is using the strategy.","notes":"Hagaman, J. L., Casey, K. J., & Reid, R. (2010). The effects of the paraphrasing strategy on the reading comprehension of young students. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 110-123.\n\nKlingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275-293.\n"},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN TEXT INFORMATION WITH SELF-QUESTIONING FROM TEXT TITLES. To better retain information from textbooks and other informational text, the student is taught to use a four-step self-questioning strategy and related 'fix-up' skills during independent reading. SELF-QUESTIONING STRATEGY: The teacher creates a strategy sheet as a student resource for this intervention. The sheet contains several simple steps in checklist format that the student applies to independent reading of an informational passage: (1) Preview the titles and sub-titles in the passage; (2) Rewrite each title as a question: e.g., The title \"Causes of the American Civil War\" might convert to the question \"What were the main causes of the Civil War?\"; (3) Read the passage; (4) Review the self-generated questions and--based on the reading--attempt to answer them. FIX-UP STRATEGIES: The strategy sheet also directs the student to apply simple fix-up strategies if unable to answer a self-generated question: (1) Re-read that section of the passage; (2) Verify that you know all vocabulary terms in the passage--and look up the meaning of any unknown words; (3) examine the passage for other 'text structures' such as tables, graphs, maps, or captioned pictures that may help to answer the question; (4) write down remaining unanswered questions to review with the teacher or tutor. To monitor use of this strategy, the teacher may direct the student to write down self-generated questions from reading assignments for the teacher's review.","notes":"Berkeley, S., Marshak, L., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2011). Improving student comprehension of social studies text: A self-questioning strategy for inclusive middle school classes. Remedial and Special Education 32, 105-113."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: SUMMARIZE READINGS. The act of summarizing longer readings can promote understanding and retention of content while the summarized text itself can be a useful study tool. The student is taught to condense assigned readings into condensed summaries--consisting of main ideas and essential details and stripped of superfluous content. ","notes":"Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction."},{"text":" READING COMPREHENSION: TEXT ENHANCEMENTS. Text enhancements can be used to tag important vocabulary terms, key ideas, or other reading content. If working with photocopied material, the student can use a highlighter to note key ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy is the ‘lasso and rope’ technique—using a pen or pencil to circle a vocabulary term and then drawing a line that connects that term to its underlined definition. If working from a textbook, the student can cut sticky notes into strips. These strips can be inserted in the book as pointers to text of interest. They can also be used as temporary labels—e.g., for writing a vocabulary term and its definition.","notes":"Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565."},{"text":"READING COMPREHENSION: VERBAL PROMPT WITH INCENTIVE. To boost student comprehension of a passage, use a verbal prompt before the reading paired with an incentive. Before the student begins reading a story or informational-text passage, the teacher says: \"Read this story/passage out loud. Try to remember as much as you can about the story/passage. Then I will have you retell the main points of the story/passage. If you remember enough of the reading, you will get a sticker [or other prize or incentive].\" If the student needs a reminder during the reading, the teacher says: \"Work on remembering as much of the reading as you can.\" At the end of the reading, the student is told to recount the main points of the passage and is awarded the promised incentive at the discretion of the teacher.","notes":"O'Shea, L. J., Sindelar, P. T., & O'Shea, D. J. (1985). The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on reading fluency and comprehension. Journal of Literacy Research, 17(2), 129-142."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Spelling","description":"<p>Spelling includes strategies to promote accuracy, fluency, and efficiency in use of spelling words.</p>","items":[{"text":"SPELLING: ASSESSMENT: EVALUATE STUDENT GROWTH DAILY. Each day, before the student practices spelling words (whether alone, with a peer, or with an adult), the teacher administers a brief spelling pre-test. The daily pre-test contains any spelling words that the student is currently working on or that will be introduced during the day's session.( In addition, the daily pre-test should also contain a sampling of words previously learned as a maintenance check.) At the end of the student's practice period, the same spelling list is readministered to the student--with words presented in a different order-- to formatively track spelling growth. Results are shared with the student. ","notes":"Graham, S.,& Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447-457."},{"text":"SPELLING: ASSESSMENT: GIVE PRE- AND POST-TESTS. Before assigning a spelling list, the teacher tests students' knowledge of words on the list by giving a non-graded spelling pre-test. Students then study the words they spelled incorrectly--narrowing the number of spelling items to be practiced. At the end of the study period, students are re-tested on the full spelling list and receive a grade.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"SPELLING: MOTIVATE ON-TASK BEHAVIOR THROUGH SELF-MONITORING. During spelling-review sessions, direct the student to keep track of the number of times that he or she practices a particular word (e.g., by putting a series of tally marks next to each word on the spelling list). Self-monitoring can increase the student's rate of on-task behavior and academic engagement. ","notes":"Graham, S.,& Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447-457."},{"text":"SPELLING: PERSONALIZED DICTIONARY. As a writing aid, help the student to compile her or his own spelling dictionary made up of 'spelling demons' (common words that challenge any speller), as well as other words that the student commonly misspells. When writing and revising a writing assignment, the student consults the dictionary as needed. This dictionary should grow over time as the student encounters more advanced vocabulary and more demanding spelling lists.","notes":"Graham, S.,& Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447-457."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: ADD-A-WORD. The Add-a-Word program is well-suited for the student who needs a high rate of success and review to maintain spelling motivation. The student is given an initial list of 10 spelling words. For each word, the student applies the Cover-Copy-Compare (CCC) strategy: (1) The student looks the correctly spelled word on the spelling list; (2) The student covers the model word(e.g., with an index card); (3) From memory, the student writes the spelling word; (4) The student uncovers the original model and compares it to the student response; (5) If incorrect, the student repeats the CCC steps with the error word. The student reviews each spelling word on the list using CCC until he or she spells it correctly twice in a row. At the end of the practice session, the student is given an exit spelling test on all 10 words and scores (or has the teacher score) the test. All correct words on the test are added to the student's log of mastered spelling words. Any word spelled correctly on the exit test two days in a row is removed from the current 10-word list, to be replaced by a new word. A week after initial mastery, mastered words are included as review words on the student's daily exit spelling test . If spelled correctly on the one-week checkup, mastered words are placed again as review words on the spelling test one month later. Any mastered word misspelled on either review test goes back onto the student's 10-item current spelling list.","notes":"Schermerhorn, P. K., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1997): Effects of the Add-A-Word spelling program on test accuracy, grades, and retention of spelling words with fifth and sixth grade regular education students. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 19(1), 23-35."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: ADOPT A KINESTHETIC APPROACH. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student says the word aloud; (2) The student writes the word and then says it again; (3) The student checks the word by consulting the spelling list and corrects the word if required; (4) The student traces the letters of the word while saying the word; (5) The student again writes the word from memory, checks the word, and corrects it if required. The student then moves to the next word on the spelling list and repeats the steps above.","notes":"Graham, S., & Freeman, S. (1986). Strategy training and teacher vs. student-controlled study conditions: Effects on learning disabled students' spelling performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 15-22."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: BREAK THE LARGER LIST INTO SMALLER SEGMENTS. Rather than overwhelming the student with a large set of spelling words to be mastered all at once, introduce 3-4 new words per day for the student to practice from the larger list. Once all words from the master list have been introduced, continue to practice until the full list has been mastered.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: COVER-COPY-COMPARE. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student looks at a model of the correctly spelled word; (2) The student covers the model word(e.g., with an index card); (3) From memory, the student writes the spelling word; (4) The student uncovers the original model and compares it to the student response; (5) If incorrect, the student repeats steps 1-4 with the error word. If correct, the student goes to the next word on the spelling list and applies steps 1-4.","notes":"Skinner, C. H., McLaughlin, T. F., & Logan, P. (1997). Cover, copy, and compare: A self-managed academic intervention effective across skills, students, and settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 295-306."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: ENGAGE IN A CLASSWIDE GAME. To make the study of spelling words more engaging, the teacher can divide the class at random each week into two teams. Within each team, students are paired off. Each pair meets through the week (e.g., daily) for 10-minute sessions. During the first 5 minutes, one student takes the role of tutor. The tutor reads words from the weekly spelling list aloud to the other student/tutee, who writes the word down and at the same time calls out each letter of the word being written. If the tutee correctly spells the word, he or she is awarded 2 points. If the word is incorrect, the tutor reads the word and spells it correctly aloud; has the tutee successfully write the word three times; and then awards the tutee 1 point. At the end of 5 minutes, the pair reverses the roles of tutor and tutee and repeat the process. When finished, the pair reports its cumulative points to the teacher. Team totals are posted each day and added to the weekly team point totals. At the end of the week, students take the final spelling test and receive 3 points for each correct word. These spelling test points are also added to the team totals. At the end of the week, the class team with the most spelling points wins a certificate.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: HIGHTLIGHT PHONEMIC ELEMENTS. The teach and student practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The teacher states the word aloud, then points to each letter and gives its name; (2) The student next states the word aloud, then points to each letter and gives its name; (3) The teacher shows a copy of the word to the student with the onset and rime displayed in different colors; (4) The teacher points first to the onset of the word and pronounces it, then points to the rime and pronounces it; (5) The student then points first to the onset and pronounces it, then points to the rime and pronounces it. NOTE: In a single-syllable word, the onset consists of the consonant(s) appearing at the front of the word, while the rime is the part of the word made up of its vowel and any consonants that follow the vowel. For example, in the word black, the onset is [bl-] and the rime is[–ack].","notes":"Berninger, V., Vaughn, K., Abbott, R., Brooks, A., Abbott, S., Rogan, L., Reed, E., & Graham, S. (1998). A multiple connections approach to early intervention for spelling problems: Integrating instructional, learner, and stimulus variables. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 587-605."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: OFFER CHOICE OF STRATEGIES. Students can be offered several strategies for effective spelling practice and directed to select one or more to use independently or under teacher supervision. Strategies include (1) pronouncing a word slowly and clearly before writing it; (2) saying the letters aloud while writing them; (3) tracing the word as part of the practice sequence; (4) closing one's eyes and visualizing the letters that make up the word; and (5) circling the problem letters of a word misspelled by the student , studying them, and then studying the correct spelling of that word.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: REPEATED DRILL WITH SOUNDING OUT. The teach and student practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The teacher shows the student a flashcard with the spelling word and reads the word aloud; (2) The student reads the word aloud from the flashcard; (3) The teacher withdraws the flashcard; (4) The student writes the word from memory, saying the name of each letter while writing it; (5) The student reads aloud the word just written; (6) The teacher again shows the correct word model on the flashcard. If the student response is incorrect, the student corrects the spelling using the flashcard model. (7) Teacher and student repeat steps 1-6 twice.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98.\n\nMann, T. B., Bushell Jr., D., & Morris, E. K. (2010). Use of sounding out to improve spelling in young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1), 89-93."},{"text":"SPELLING: PRACTICE: VISUALIZATION. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student looks at the target spelling word, reads it aloud, then covers the word (e.g., with an index card); (2) The student closes his or her eyes and pictures the word; (3) Still with eyes closed, the student silently names each letter in the word; (4) The student opens his or her eyes and writes the word; (5) The student uncovers the original model and checks the spelling of the student response. (6) If incorrect, the student repeats steps 1-5 with the current word. If correct, the student advances to the next word to repeat the process.","notes":"Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Whitaker, D., Sylvester, L., & Nolan, S. (1995). Integrating low- and high-level skills in instructional protocols for writing disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 293-310."},{"text":"SPELLING: TRAIN SPELLING-WORD PREDICTION SKILLS. When students can accurately assess which words on a spelling list are likely to be the most difficult, they can better and more efficiently allocate study time. Whenever giving the student a spelling list, have the student review the new words and circle those that the student predicts that he or she can spell correctly. In follow-up assessments, compare these initial predictions to actual performance as feedback about how accurately the student can predict success. Over time, the student should become more skilled in judging which spelling words will require the greatest study effort.","notes":"Graham, S.,& Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447-457."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Writing: Graphomotor","description":"<p>Graphomotor includes recommendations to help students with letter and number formation and handwriting.</p>","items":[{"text":"GRAPHOMOTOR: PROVIDE ADDITIONAL PRACTICE ON DIFFICULT LETTERS. Students tend to have the greatest difficulty acquiring these 7 lower-case letters: [q, j, z, u, n, k, and a]. When learning these letters, therefore, a student would benefit from use of models, additional teacher demonstration, supervised practice, and extra opportunities for practice.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"GRAPHOMOTOR: SPACE LETTER-WRITING PRACTICE ACROSS MULTIPLE SESSIONS. When taught to write a new letter, the student should practice it for a short period with teacher supervision and feedback. Before concluding the initial practice session, the student is told to self-evaluate his or her copying efforts by circling the two that are best drawn. The student continues to practice the letter for brief periods daily or several times per week until fluent in writing it. Once sufficient letters have been learned, practice sessions can be made more meaningful by requiring the student first to write all of the letters that he or she knows and then to compose or copy a brief composition (e.g., one to two sentences) to practice letter-writing in context.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."},{"text":"GRAPHOMOTOR: USE COLORED PAPER TO INCREASE WRITING LEGIBILITY. Students with attention or impulsivity issues may improve the legibility of handwriting for spelling and writing tasks through use of colored writing paper. In preparation, the student is offered a range of colored paper choices ranging from pastels to bright, highly saturated (neon) hues. The paper in the color chosen by the student is then prepared by adding ruled lines for writing. Whenever the student has an important writing task in which legibility is important, he or she is encouraged to use writing paper of the preferred color. ","notes":"Imhof, M. (2004). Effects of color stimulation on handwriting performance of children with ADHD without and with additional learning disabilities. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 191-198."},{"text":"GRAPHOMOTOR: USE MODELS FOR LETTER FORMATION. To help the student to write letter shapes appropriately, the teacher provides the student with models of each letter with numbered arrows to show the orientation, order, and direction of each stroke that makes up the letter.","notes":"Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98."}]},{"editable":false,"title":"Writing: Production","description":"<p>Writing: Production targets student fluency in producing text.</p>","items":[{"text":"WRITING: PRODUCTION: DRAWING AS A PRE-WRITING ACTIVITY. The teacher presents the student with a motivating writing topic and allocates a sufficient time (e.g., 30 minutes) for the student to produce a composition. During the writing period, the student is directed to first draw a picture about the topic and then to write a composition on the same topic. ","notes":"Norris, E., Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (1998). Children's use of drawing as a pre-writing strategy. Journal of Research in Reading, 21(1), 69-74."},{"text":"WRITING: PRODUCTION: REGULAR WRITING WITH PROMPTS. The student engages in 20-minute writing sessions. Before each writing session the student briefly reviews the following prompts for writing mechanics--with an instructor or in peer pairs or groups--and has them available as a written checklist: (1) Use complete sentences. Each sentence should 'sound complete' and contain at least one subject and one verb. (2) Indent and punctuate. The first sentence of each new paragraph is indented. Each sentence in the passage has appropriate end-punctuation (period, question mark, exclamation point). Quotation marks are used to denote the exact words spoken by someone. (3) Capitalize. The initial letters of these words are capitalized: the first word in a sentence; the names of proper nouns. At the end of the session, the student uses the mechanics checklist to revise the writing sample before turning it in.","notes":"Harriman, N. E., & Gajar, A.H. (1986). The effects of repeated writing and repeated revision strategies on composing fluency of learning disabled adolescents (Report No. ED290312). Educational Resources Information Center."},{"text":"WRITING: PRODUCTION: TIME-DRILLS AND GRAPHING. This intervention uses 5-minute writing drills with visual feedback (graphing) to improve the writing fluency of groups or the entire class. WRITING DRILL: The session opens with quick brainstorming or topic discussion to prime student writers. Then the teacher sets a timer and tells the students to write for five minutes. The teacher announces when there is one minute remaining in the session and tells students to stop writing when the timer sounds. The following rules are publicly posted and reviewed with students before writing sessions: (1) Write quickly in legible handwriting;(2) Cross out mistakes and continue writing;(3) Write for the full 5 minutes; (4) Refrain from talking or other distracting behavior; and(5) Do not request bathroom or drink breaks during the drill. SCORING: Students count up the number of words written and exchange their writing samples with a neighbor, who re-counts total words written to ensure accuracy. (The teacher resolves any scoring disagreements between students.) GRAPHING AND INCENTIVES: Each student updates a paper or computerized bar graph to include the current day's writing total and cumulative weekly total. Students receive recognition (e.g., praise) for improved daily scores and earn incentives (e.g., 10 minutes free time) for improved weekly scores. The teacher also collects writing scores from all students on a daily basis, with rotating students updating a daily class chart. The teacher acknowledges daily class improvement and provides an incentive for weekly class improvements (e.g., special class game played at the end of the week).","notes":"Kasper-Ferguson, S., & Moxley, R. A. (2002). Developing a writing package with student graphing of fluency. Education and Treatment of Children, 25(2), 249-267."}]}],"reports":[{"id":1355014290242,"title":"Academic Intervention Plan: Research Citations & Notes","description":"<p>This form provides descriptions of the selected intervention, a listing of research articles supporting the intervention ideas, and space for teacher notes.</p>","columns":[{"header":"Academic Intervention Strategies","type":"item","width":22},{"header":"Research Citations","type":"notes","width":10},{"header":"Teacher Notes","type":"blank","width":10}]},{"id":1355014485165,"title":"Academic Intervention Plan: User-Entered Notation","description":"<p>This form provides descriptions of the selected intervention and includes any user-entered notation saved as part of the plan.</p>","columns":[{"header":"Academic Intervention Strategies","type":"item","width":10},{"header":"Notes Added by the User","type":"user","width":10}]}]}